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Getting kids to share their toys is a never-ending battle, and forcing them to do so never seems to help. New research suggests that allowing children to make a choice to sacrifice their own toys in order to share with someone else makes them share more in the future. The new findings are published in Psychological Science.
These experiments were conducted by psychological scientists, Nadia Chernyak and Tamar Kushnir of Cornell University. They found that sharing things with others when they are given a difficult choice leads children to think of themselves as people who like to share. It also makes them more likely to act in a pro-social （亲社会的）manner in the future.
Previous research has explained why rewarding children for sharing can backfire. Children come to think of themselves as people who don't like to share since they had to be rewarded for doing so. Because they don't view themselves as "sharers", they are less likely to share in the future.
Chernyak and Kushnir were interested in finding out whether freely chosen sacrifice might have the opposite effect on kids' willingness to share. To test this, the researchers introduced five-year-old children to Doggie, a sad puppet. Some of the children were given a difficult choice: Share a precious sticker（贴纸） with Doggie, or keep it for themselves. Other children were given an easy choice between sharing and putting the sticker away, while children in a third group were required by the researcher to share.
Later on, all the children were introduced to Ellie, another sad puppet. They were given the option of how many stickers to share (up to three). The kids who earlier made the difficult choice to help Doggie shared more stickers with Ellie. The children who were initially faced with an easy choice or who were required to give their sticker to Doggie, on the other hand, shared fewer stickers with Ellie. Therefore, children did not benefit from simply giving something up, but rather from willingly choosing to give something up of value.
“You might imagine that making difficult, costly choices is demanding for young children or even that once children share, they don’t feel the need to do so again,” Chernyak says. “But this wasn't the case: once children made a difficult decision to give up something for someone else, they were more generous, not less, later on.” Chernyak concludes.
1._______ helps children to share more in the future.
A. Rewarding children for sharing
B. Forcing children to share
C. Allowing children to share precious things willingly
D. Allowing children to share what they don’t need
2.The underlined word “backfire” means _______.
A. have an opposite effect B. serve as a push
C. cause anger D. avoid taking things back
3.Those who were required to share give fewer stickers to Ellie because _______.
A. they regret what they did B. it’s not their own choice
C. Ellie is not as sad as Doggie D. they like to share with a real person
4.We can conclude from the passage that _______.
A. parents will never find a way to get children to share toys
B. a gift should be given to make up for children’s sacrifice
C. children pretend to be generous when they are being observed
D. making difficult choices may influence sharing behavior
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阅读理解
What exactly is a lie? Is it anything we say which we know is untrue? Or is it something more than that? For example , suppose a friend wants to borrow some money from you. You say. “I wish I could help you but fm short of money myself.” In fact, you are not short of money but your friend is in the habit of not paying his debts and you don't want to hurt his feelings by reminding him of this. Is this really a lie?
Professor Jerald Jellison of the University of Southern California has made a scientific study of lying. According to him, women are better liars than men, particularly when telling a “white lie” , such as when a woman at a party tells another woman that she likes her dress when she really thinks it looks terrible. However, this is only one side of the story. Other researchers say that men are more likely to tell more serious lies , such as making a promise which they have no intention of carrying out. This is the kind of lie politicians and businessmen are supposed to be particularly skilled at: the lie from which the liar hopes to profit （获利） or gain in some way.
Research has also been done into the way people's behaviours changes in a number of small, apparently unimportant ways when they lie. It has been found that if they are sitting down at the time , they tend to move about in their chairs more than usual. To the trained observer they are saying , “I wish I were somewhere else now.” They also tend to touch certain parts of the face more often, in particular the nose. One explanation of this may be that lying causes a slight increase in blood pressure. The tip of the nose is very sensitive to such changes and the increased pressure makes it itch （痒）.
Another gesture （手式） which gives liars away is what the writer Desmond Morris in his book Man Watching calls “the mouth cover” . He says there are several typical forms of this , such as covering part of the mouth with the fingers, touching the upper-lip or putting a finger of the hand at one side of the mouth. Such a gesture can be understood as an unconscious （无意识的） attempt on the part of the liar to stop himself or herself from lying. Of course , such gestures as rubbing the nose or covering the mouth , or moving about in a chair cannot be taken as proof that the speaker is lying. They simply tend to occur more frequently in this situation: It is not one gesture alone that gives the liar away but a whole number of things , arid in particular the context （情境） in which the lie is told.
1．According to Professor Jellison, a “white lie” appears to be a lie ________.
[ ]
A．that are told to mean the opposite
B．that a liar tells unconsciously
C．that the teller tells to profit or gain some advantage from it
D．which is harmless and told so as not to hurt someone else
2．Research on lying suggests that women ________.
[ ]
A．are more skilled at telling less serious lies than men do
B．tell more lies than men do
C．like to flatter （奉承） people more often than men do
D．are better at telling lies at parties than men do
3．One reason why people sometimes cover their mounths while lying is that ________.
[ ]
A．they wish those words had not come out of their mouths
B．mouth is very sensitive to physical changes caused by lying
C．they are trying unconsciously to stop themselves from telling lies
D．they regret that their lies might hurt other people's feelings
4．We can realize from the passage that ________.
[ ]
A．certain gestures can be used as proof to judge whether a speaker is lying or not
B．politicians and businessmen lie more often than ordinary people
C．some gestures are proofs of lying only if they occur too often
D．there is no simple way to judge if people tell lies or not
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阅读下面短文，从短文后所给各题的四个选项（A、B、C、D）中选出能填入空白处的最佳选项。
A young man was getting ready to graduate from college. For many months he had admired a beautiful sports car in a dealer’s showroom, and knowing his father could well 41 it, he told him that was all he wanted.
As Graduation Day approached, the young man awaited signs 42 his father had bought the car. Finally, on the morning of his graduation, his father called him into his private 43 . His father told him how 44 he was to have such a fine son, and told him how much he loved him. He 45 his son a beautiful wrapped gift box. Curious, but 46 disappointed, the young man opened the box and found a lovely, leather-bound Bible, with the young man’s 47 embossed (压印浮凸)in gold.
Angrily, he 48 his voice to his father and said, "With all your money you give me a Bible（圣经）?" He then stormed out of the house, 49 the Bible.
Many years 50 and the young man was very 51 in business. He had a beautiful home and a wonderful family, but realizing his father was very 52 , he thought perhaps he should go to see him. He had not seen him since that graduation day. 53 he could make the arrangements, he received a telegram telling him his father had 54 , and willed all of his possessions to his 55 . He needed to come home immediately and take care of things.
When he arrived at his father’s house, sudden sadness and 56 filled his heart. He began to search through his father’s important papers and saw the 57 new Bible, just as he had left it years ago.
With 58 , he opened the Bible and began to turn the pages. As he was reading, a car key dropped from the back of the Bible. It had a tag with the dealer’s name, the 59 dealer who had the sports car he had desired. On the tag was the date of his graduation, and the word “PAID IN FULL”.
How many times do we miss blessings 60 they are not packaged as we expected? What may appear as bad fortune may in fact be the door that is just waiting to be opened.
41. A. buy B. afford C. make D. pay
42. A. that B. which C. what D. where
43. A. house B. office C. study D. car
44. A. proud B. hopeful C. eager D. anxious
45. A. showed B. handed C. brought D. provided
46. A. anyway B. somewhat C. somehow D. somewhere
47. A. number B. hand C. hair D. name
48. A. risen B. rose C. arose D. raised
49. A. leaving B. left C. leave D. to leave
50. A. past B. passed C. went D. flied
51. A. satisfied B. busy C. successful D. lucky
52. A. old B. selfish C. mean D. lonely
53. A. After B. When C. Before D. Since
54. A. passed by B. passed away C. passed down D. passed out
55. A. daughter B. son C. grandson D. wife
56. A. regret B. anger C. disappointment D. annoyance
57. A. even B. also C. still D. yet
58. A. smiles B. tears C. hearts D. glasses
59. A. same B. different C. familiar D. similar
60. A. before B. if C. though D. because
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