The history of English Coins

English coins have developed and changed over time. In the early 1600s' coins were made using the hammer struck method. Hammered coins or cast coins where the primary way coins were made and thus limited the number of coins that may be placed into circulation (流通). Hammered coins were made as far back as the first millennium BC with continued in use until the 1500s to the 1700s. English coins underwent a change in about 1663.

Hammered English coins were made using a blank quantity of metal that was the required weight and placing it between two dies. A die is a mold (模子) that allows the metal to get cut to a certain size and shape.The metal die contained an image that when hammered without delay would mold the image on each side of the coin. The unit was customarily place on a log or other firm surface which was known as a pile. One person held the die while a second person struck it.

There were several issues with this kind of coin making. For one thing, it was extremely slow and work in depth. Comparatively few coins might be made and placed into circulation. A second problem was that hammered coins had many irregularities. When several coins were placed together in a container and shaken about they were damaged as well. That is why older English coins might have chips(缺口) and rough edges.

During the 17th century hammered coins were replaced with milled (轧有花边的) coins. While France was the first country to start producing coins that were made entirely by machine, Britain wasn't far behind. Britain, in fact, began to manufacture coins on a trial basis in the mid?1500s, but it wasn't until the end of 1662 that English coins were made completely by machine.

The screw press (螺旋压力机) was the first machine to produce coins as an alternative to hammered coins. Leonardo da Vinci was the person who invented the screw press in the 15th century. It was powered by a water mill. Early on efforts were made to protect the coins by edging. You'll see that English?made coins have milled edges.

Milled English coins were much more standard in size and shape as well. The speed at which milled coins could be created allowed the coin circulation to grow and a greater number of coin types to be developed.

English coins were used in this country during the royally period. Hammered coins were produced and used up through the end of the 18th century and were given out across the colonies. English coins went through quite a lot of changes as can be seen in old coins that have been started in the US over time.

__1.__of English coins????????????? Time & Major Events

Hammered

coins????????????? ◆The hammer struck method used to make coins has a history dating back to the first millennium BC.

◆At least two people are needed to carry out the work, with one _2.__the die and the other striking it.

◆__3._：

◆The number of coins made and placed into circulation this way was _4.__.

◆Older English coins were quite __5._，with many having chips and rough edges.

◆Such coins were placed into circulation across the colonies and __6._ in use through the end of the 18th century.

Milled coins????????????? During

the 15th

century????????????? ◆Leonardo da Vinci _7.__the screw press, the 1st machine to produce coins.

????????????? In the

mid?1500s????????????? Britain __8._manufacturing coins.

????????????? In the

17th

century????????????? ◆France became the first country to start producing coins made entirely by machine，_9.__ by Britain, whose machine?made coins were featured by milled edges, but were more regular in size and shape.

◆The coin circulation began to grow.

◆Milled coins appeared as a(n) __10._ to hammered coins.

E
The motor vehicle has killed and disabled more people in its brief history than any bomb or weapon ever invented . Much of the blood on the street flows essentially from uncivil behavior of drivers who refuse to respect the legal and moral rights of others . So the massacre (大屠杀) on the road may be regarded as a social problem .
In fact , the enemies of society on wheels are rather harmless people just ordinary people acting carelessly , you might say . But it is a principle both of law and common morality that carelessness is no excuse when one’s actions could bring death or damage to others . A minority of the killers go even beyond carelessness to total negligence (疏忽).
Researchers have estimated that as many as 80 percent of all automobile accidents can be attributed to the psychological condition of the driver . Emotional upsets can distort drivers’ reactions , slow their judgment , and blind them to dangers that might otherwise be evident . The experts warn that it is important for every driver to make a conscious effort to keep one’s emotion under control .
Yet the irresponsibility that accounts for much of the problem is not confined to drivers . Street walkers regularly violate (违反) traffic regulations , they are at fault in most vehicle walker accidents , and many cyclists even believe that they are not subject to the basic rules of the road .
Significant legal advances have been made towards safer driving in the past few years . Safety standards for vehicle have been raised both at the point of manufacture (制造业) and through periodic road-worthiness inspections . In addition , speed limits have been lowered. Due to these measures , the accident rate has decreased . But the accident experts still worry because there has been little or no improvement in the way drivers behave . The only real and lasting solution , say the experts , is to convince people that driving is a skilled task requiring constant care and concentration . Those who fail to do all these things present a threat to those with whom they share the road .
1．What is the author’s main purpose in writing this passage ?
A．To show that the motor vehicle is a very dangerous invention .
B．To promote understanding between careless drivers and street walkers .
C．To discuss traffic problems and propose possible solutions .
D．To warn drivers of the importance of safe driving .
2．Why does the author mention the psychological condition of the driver in Paragraph Three ?
A．To give an example of the various reasons for road accidents .
B．To show how important it is for drivers to be emotionally healthy .
C．To show some of the inaccurate estimations by researchers .
D．To illustrate the hidden tensions in the course of driving
3．The following is mentioned as being responsible for the road accidents except       .
A．careless bicycle riders     B．mindless people walking in the street
C．irresponsible drivers       D．irresponsible manufacturers of automobiles
4．Which of the following best reflects the author’s attitude toward a future without traffic accident problems ?
A．Doubtful yet still longing for .       B．Happy and rather confident .
C．Surprised and very pleased .   D．Disappointed and deeply worried .

It is hardly surprising that clothing manufacturers （生产商）follow certain uniform standards for various features（特征）of clothes. What seems strange, however, is that the standard adopted for women is the opposite of the one for men. Take a look at the way your clothes button. Men’s clothes tend to button from the right, and women’s from the left. Considering most of the world’s population--men and women are right-handed, the men’s standard would appear to make more sense for women. So why do women’s clothes button from the left?

History really seems to matter here. Button first appeared only on the clothes of the rich in the 17th century, when rich women were dressed by servants. For the mostly right-handed servants, having women’s shirts button from the left would be easier. On the other hand, having men’s shirts button form the right made sense, too. Most men dressed themselves, and a sword drawn from the left with the right hand would be less likely to get caught in the shirt.

Today women are seldom dressed by servants, but buttoning from the left is still the standard for them. Is it interesting? Actually, a standard, once set, resists change. At a time when all women’s shirts buttoned from the left, it would have been risky for any single manufacture to offer women’s shirts that buttoned the right. After all, women had grown so used to shirts which buttoned from the left and would have to develop new habits and skills to switch. Besides from the right, since anyone who noticed that would believe they were wearing men’s shirts.

1.What is surprising about the standard of the clothing industry?

A. It has been followed by the industry for over 400 years.

B. It is different for men’s clothing and women’s.

C. It works better with men than with women.

D. It fails to consider right-handed people.

2.What do we know about the rich men in the 17th century?

A. They tended to wear clothes without buttons.

B. They were interested in the historical matters.

C. They were mostly dressed by servants.

D. They drew their swords from the left.

3.Women’s clothes still button from the left today because         .

A. adopting men’s style is improper for women

B. manufacturers should follow standards

C. modern women dress themselves

D. customs are hard to change

4.The passage is mainly developed by          .

A. analyzing cause                    B. making comparisons

C. examining differences           D. following the time order

根据短文内容，从短文后的七个选项中选出能填入空白处的最佳选项。选项中有两项为多余选项。

Are you a team person? Are you at your best as part of a small, tightly united group of dedicated workers? If so, the future may hold more for you than you think.

   1.    That’s happening in those areas of business and data processing where one person and a computer can replace a team of workers.

2.  High technology has led to a new type of teamwork in a number of fields, including advertising, scientific research, engineering design, architecture and ocean exploration.

Through computer networking, scientists, engineers, and technicians at different locations — often thousands of miles apart --- can work on the same project at once.    3.    

Examples? An engineering team can now design and try out a robot system --- a new manufacturing process, or an entire factory — before it is built. An architectural team can do the same with a building or a bridge. A medical team can simulate a dangerous operation before performing it on a patient.

Of course, computer-assisted team effort doesn’t end with investigation and simulation.  4.  “CAD-CAM --- computer-aided design and manufacture --- is breaking down barriers between traditional design and manufacturing functions.” explains Dr. Prakash Rao, an engineering manager at General Electric. “Interdisciplinary(跨学科的) teams and engineers follow a product from concept to production. Everything is interconnected like a network.”

5.   A team that produces robots may use them to explore space and ocean depths. For high-technology teamwork, the future seems limitless.

A. They can exchange ideas, try out different designs, and test their results.

B. It now usually continues into actual design, manufacturing, and testing.

C. In the future, team work will be highlighted by the introduction of new technology.

D. Sometimes, a computer-aided effort can extend beyond production.

E. But, elsewhere, teamwork is very much alive.

F. It ends in the products which are extensions of the traditional design.

G. High technology, some predicted, would make team work a thing of the past.

On the day Apple debuted the often-delayed white-colored iPhone 4, the company’s marketing department gave a nod to the product’s troubled history.

“Finally.” read the big headline Thursday above a picture of the white phone on the homepage of Apple. com.

The white model was supposed to ship alongside the black one at the iPhone 4’s launch（推出） last June. But design and manufacturing complications delayed the process by 10 months, catching Apple off guard, executives say.

As CNN reported last month, earlier test models of the white iPhone 4 produced unclear photos, especially when the flash（闪光灯） was used. Its whiteness confused the proximity sensor （距离传感器） , which detects when the phone is held next to someone’s head and turns off the touch screen to save battery life.

These problems weren’t present in older iPhones that came in white because they didn’t have flash photography; the proximity sensor was unaffected because the front side of previous models was black.

“We thought we were there a year ago, or less than that, when we launched the iPhone 4, and we weren’t,” Philip Schiller, Apple’s chief marketing executive, said in an interview. “It’s not as simple as making something white. There’s a lot more that goes into both the material science of it —how it holds up over time…but also in how it all works with the sensors. “

Ticonderoga Securities analyst Brian White predicts that the white model could help drive sales of Apple’s phones. He says Apple could sell 1 million to 1. 5 million every three months until the next iPhone model is unveiled, which is expected to be this fall.

Forty-five people were lined up at Apple’s flagship New York store Thursday morning to buy white iPhones, according to a CNN Money report.

1.

The reason why white-colored iPhone 4 was delayed by 10 months is that _______.

2.

According to the passage, which of the following statements is TRUE?

3.

What would be the best title for this passage?

4.

What does the underlined word “unveil” in the last paragraph mean?