Psychologists take opposing views of how external rewards, from warm praise to cold cash, affect motivation and creativity. Behaviorists, who study the relation between actions and their consequences, 题目和参考答案——青夏教育精英家教网—

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Psychologists take opposing views of how external rewards(外部奖赏), from warm praise to cold cash, affect motivation and creativity. Behaviorists, who study the relation between actions and their consequences, argue that rewards can improve performance at work and school. Cognitive (认知学派的) researchers, who study various aspects of mental life, believe that rewards often destroy creativity by encouraging dependence on approval and gifts from others.

The latter view has gained many supporters, especially among educators. But the careful use of small monetary (金钱的) rewards sparks creativity in grade-school children, suggesting that properly presented inducements (刺激) indeed aid inventiveness(创造力), according to a study in the June Journal of Personality and Social Psychology".

"If kids know they're working for a reward and can focus on a relatively challenging task, they show the most creativity," says Robert Eisenberger of the University of Delaware in Newark. "But it's easy to kill creativity by giving rewards for poor performance or creating too much desire for rewards." A teacher who continually draws attention to rewards or who hands out high grades for ordinary achievement ends up with uninspired students, Eisenberger holds. As an example of the latter point, he notes growing efforts at major universities to tighten grading standards and restore

failing grades.

In earlier grades, the use of so-called token economies, in which students handle challenging problems and receive performance-based points toward valued rewards, shows promise in raising effort and creativity, the Delaware psychologist claims.

71．Psychologists are divided with regard to their attitudes toward _____.

A．the choice between spiritual encouragement and monetary rewards

B．the amount of monetary rewards for students' creativity

C．the study of relationship between actions and their consequences

D．the effects of external rewards on students' performance

72．What is the response of many educators to external rewards for their students?

A．They have no doubts about them.

B．They have doubts about them.

C．They approve of them.

D．They avoid talking about them.

73．Which of the following can best raise students' creativity according to Robert Eisenberger?

A．Giving them tasks they have not dealt with before.

B．Giving them tasks which require inventiveness.

C．Giving them rewards they really deserve.

D．Giving them rewards they hope for.

74．.It can be inferred from the passage that major universities are trying to tighten their grading standards because they believe ______.

A．rewarding poor performance may kill the creativity of students

B．punishment is more effective than rewarding

C．failing uninspired students helps improve their overall academic standards

D．discouraging the students' anticipation for easy rewards is a matter of urgency

75．The phrase "token economies" (Sentence 1, Paragraph 5) probably refers to _____.

A．ways to develop economy

B．systems of rewarding students

C．approaches to solving problems

D．methods of improving performance

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One of Britain's leading fee-paying schools, Wellington College, is to offer classes on happiness to fight against the negative influences in society caused by materialism (功利主义) and celebrity obsession (名誉崇拜), its headteacher announced.

Wellington school was founded in 1853 and currently has 750 boys aged 13 to 18 and 50 girls aged 16 plus. Fees range from 6,132 pounds per term for day pupils to 7,665 pounds per term for boarders.

"We are introducing classes on happiness," said Anthony Seldon, master of Wellington College. "We have been focusing too much on academics (学术) and missing something far more important."

A psychologist will oversee a pilot project teaching "happiness lessons" from the start of the next academic year. Pupils aged 14 to 16 will be given one lesson a week, learning skills such as how to manage relationships, physical and mental health, negative emotions and how to achieve one's ambitions.

The college's religious education staff will teach the course as a complement to, rather than a substitute for, usual religious education classes, said Seldon, who is also a political critic and author.

"To me, the most important job of any school is to turn out young men and women who are happy and secure (可靠的)." explained Seldon. "Celebrity, money and possessions are too often the touchstones for teenagers and yet these are not where happiness lies. Our children need to know that as societies become richer, they don't become happier -- a fact regularly shown by social science research."

5．Wellington school is to offer students classes on happiness because _____.

A．students want to learn more about materialism and celebrity obsession

B．students have poor knowledge about materialism and celebrity obsession

C．students are often unhappy about the courses taught at school

D．the school wants to smooth away the bad effects caused by materialism and celebrity obsession

6．Which statement is true according to the text?

A．Wellington College has been focusing much attention on happiness lessons.

B．Science research shows that the richer people are, the happier they will become.

C．British teenagers often judge things by celebrity, money and possessions.

D．Happiness lessons will take the place of religious education classes in college.

7．In happiness lessons, students learn the following except _____.

A．how to get along with others

B．how to become wealthy and famous

C．how to get rid of negative emotion

D．how to keep healthy both in physical and mental ways

8．The passage mainly talks about _____.

A．new classes on happiness for British students

B．something about Willington College

C．the British education system

D．British teenagers’ attitude to life

The need for love is deeply rooted in the human psyche(灵魂). ____ Separateness, according to psychologists, means to be cut off, helpless and alone in the world. It is the source of all anxiety.

_____ It can be selfish and possessive, or unselfish and giving. Abraham Maslow distinguishes between two kinds of love: B-love or “being love” means love for another person: unselfish love not dependent upon your own needs. D-love or “deficiency-love” is a selfish possessive love which is based upon someone else’s ability to satisfy your needs.

D-love is conditional. It depends upon whether personal needs continue to be met…But B-love is unconditional. ___ Furthermore, as it depends upon who you are, it is possible only when you allow yourself to be known to the other person.

The psychologist Erich Fromm also distinguished between two types of love._ _ Symbiotic union is an immature love based upon the satisfaction of needs and is similar to Maslow’s concept of D-love.

Mature love, on the other hand, is a relationship that allows individuals to retain(保持) their independence, their identity, and their integrity. In mature love people can overcome their sense of separateness yet continue to be themselves. The mature lover would say , “I love you because I need you,” but the mature one: “__”

A. There are two types of love.

B. I need you because I love you.

C. Love is a way of overcoming the feeling

D. Every one of us needs love.

E. It depends not upon what you do, but who you are.

F. They are immature love, called by him symbiotic union(共同体), and mature love.

G. These two types are quite different from each other.

In any family with more than one child, chidren seem to naturally compete for their parents’ love and attention. Parents say they love every child equally. But is that true?

Susan, founder of a consulting firm in Chicago, interviewed 216 women and found that even though none of her questions asked directly about a parent favoring one child over another, about two-thirds of the women said there was a favored child. And they also remembered their experience when they were young. One of the women said, “My mother always liked my brother better, and he got to go to summer camp in 1968 and I didn’t.”

Plumez, who interviewed parents with both biological children and adoptive children for an adoption book in 2008, found that what matters most is whether your temperaments(性情) are pleasing. “In some cases, parents would say they felt closer to their adopted children,” she says, “Some parents like the children with characters similar to theirs. Two people who are shy and withdrawn might get along well, unless the shy parent doesn’t like that aspect of themselves and they try to push the naturally withdrawn child to be more extroverted.”

It could be a result of gender, birth order or how easy or difficult a child’s temperament may be, but a parent’s different treatment has far-reaching effects. Students have found that less-favored children may suffer emotionally, with decreased self-esteem and behavioral problems in childhood. Favoritism is a reason for the next generation not to like each other.

Experts say it is not realistic to say everyone should be treated equally, because no two people are the same and they relate differently to others.

“It does not mean that parent loves or likes one child more. It has to do with which one of them is independent,” says psychologist Laurie Kramer of the University of Illinois.

The study carried out by Susan shows that ______.

A. showing favoritism is common in many families

B. most mothers like their sons better than their daughters

C. only two-thirds of the women interviewed have more than a child

D. it is a favoritism that leads to absence of harmony in most families

The underlined word “extroverted” in the third paragraph means _______.

A. independent B. outgoing C. clever D. brave

What can we infer from the passage?

A. Favoritism is not beneficial to the development of children

B. Parents’ favoritism to a certain child can’t be avoided in families

C. Parents may be favoring one of their children and don’t realize it

D. People are very much shaped by how they were treated by their parents

What is the best title for the passage?

A. Parents’ favoritism can affect children deeply

B. Why do parents show favoritism to children?

C. Parents should give attention to all their children

D. Building a harmonious family is important to children

The need for love is deeply rooted in the human psyche(灵魂). __1.__ Separateness, according to psychologists, means to be cut off, helpless and alone in the world. It is the source of all anxiety.

_2.____ It can be selfish and possessive, or unselfish and giving. Abraham Maslow distinguishes between two kinds of love: B-love or “being love” means love for another person: unselfish love not dependent upon your own needs. D-love or “deficiency-love” is a selfish possessive love which is based upon someone else’s ability to satisfy your needs.

D-love is conditional. It depends upon whether personal needs continue to be met…But B-love is unconditional. _3.__ Furthermore, as it depends upon who you are, it is possible only when you allow yourself to be known to the other person.

The psychologist Erich Fromm also distinguished between two types of love._ 4._ Symbiotic union is an immature love based upon the satisfaction of needs and is similar to Maslow’s concept of D-love.

A．There are two types of love.

B．I need you because I love you.

C．Love is a way of overcoming the feeling

D．Every one of us needs love.

E. It depends not upon what you do, but who you are.

F. They are immature love, called by him symbiotic union(共同体), and mature love.

G. These two types are quite different from each other.

During a state of deep relaxation, several physiological changes take place in the body: the body's oxygen consumption is reduced; the heart beat decreases; muscle tension and sweating ease, and there is decreased sympathetic （交感的） nervous system activity．This restful state not only allows the body to repair and restore itself, but it has a calming effect on the consciousness．

How to achieve this state of relaxation, however, is a matter of opinion, and in some medical circles, a matter of controversy．A recent report by Dr．David Holmes of the University of Kansas in the journal “American psychologist” said that simply sitting in an armchair has just as many beneficial characteristics for the body as meditation （冥想） does．Researchers of other relaxation techniques disagree．These experts believe that more structured techniques, such as meditation, lead to a condition of deep relaxation．

The debate goes on, but one thing appears to be clear: the relaxation response can be reached by a number of methods, and the methods themselves are not as important as getting there．One day, one method may work best; on another day, an alternative method may be more appropriate．Once you are aware of all the methods, you can find the one that works best on you．

Some of the relaxation techniques are meditation, auto analysis and progressive muscle relaxation response．More than just sitting quietly in a chair, they have the added benefit of structure and discipline, and for these reasons appear to be more effective for most individuals．

1.According to the passage, which of the following statements is NOT true when a person is in a state of deep relaxation?

A．The body takes in less oxygen．

B．The heart beats less frequently．

C．Muscles become tense and the body sweats easily．

D．The consciousness becomes more or less calmed．

2.People seem to agree that ____．

A．sitting in an armchair benefits a person as meditation does

B．structured relaxation techniques are more beneficial for a person

C．to achieve a state of deep relaxation is possible through various means

D．what people are all struggling for is a state of deep relaxation

3.In the third paragraph, the phrase “getting there” means _____．

A．arriving at one’s destination

B．getting what one wants most

C．finding out a suitable relaxation technique

D．reaching a state of deep relaxation

4.The author's attitude toward relaxation discussed in the passage is best described as ______．

A．sceptical B．objective C．optimistic D．critical

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